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The Invention of Science – David Wootton

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The Invention of Science

A New History of the Scientific Revolution

David Wootton

Genre: History

Price: $1.99

Publish Date: December 8, 2015

Publisher: Harper

Seller: HARPERCOLLINS PUBLISHERS


A companion to such acclaimed works as The Age of Wonder, A Clockwork Universe, and Darwin’s Ghosts—a groundbreaking examination of the greatest event in history, the Scientific Revolution, and how it came to change the way we understand ourselves and our world. We live in a world transformed by scientific discovery. Yet today, science and its practitioners have come under political attack. In this fascinating history spanning continents and centuries, historian David Wootton offers a lively defense of science, revealing why the Scientific Revolution was truly the greatest event in our history. The Invention of Science goes back five hundred years in time to chronicle this crucial transformation, exploring the factors that led to its birth and the people who made it happen. Wootton argues that the Scientific Revolution was actually five separate yet concurrent events that developed independently, but came to intersect and create a new worldview. Here are the brilliant iconoclasts—Galileo, Copernicus, Brahe, Newton, and many more curious minds from across Europe—whose studies of the natural world challenged centuries of religious orthodoxy and ingrained superstition. From gunpowder technology, the discovery of the new world, movable type printing, perspective painting, and the telescope to the practice of conducting experiments, the laws of nature, and the concept of the fact, Wotton shows how these discoveries codified into a social construct and a system of knowledge. Ultimately, he makes clear the link between scientific discovery and the rise of industrialization—and the birth of the modern world we know.

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The Invention of Science – David Wootton

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One more reason not to drive in New York (that could also save the planet)

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New York could become the first U.S. city to charge people for driving a car downtown — that is, if Governor Andrew Cuomo gets his way.

During a “state of the state” speech to kick off his third term, Cuomo said a new congestion pricing plan would be part of his ambitious agenda over the next 100 days. The agenda also includes additional efforts like banning plastic bags and 100 percent carbon-free energy by 2040. Now that Democrats have unified control of New York government, this climate-friendly wish list could quickly become reality.

Congestion pricing would vault New York City towards a car-free future, and cement its leadership role on tackling climate change. But the fee wouldn’t kick in until sometime after 2021 and a lot could still change.

The idea of congestion pricing is simple: In a dense urban environment with great public transportation like lower Manhattan, operating a private passenger vehicle is actually harmful for society. Cars are dirty, loud, dangerous, and take up tons of space. If they get more expensive, fewer people will use them, carbon emissions will go down, and the streets will be safer — a win for everyone. Watch our video team explain the concept:

In New York, public backing for congestion pricing is on the rise. Public transit commuters outnumber auto commuters 30-to-1 in some parts of NYC, and there’s a growing support particularly among lower-income New Yorkers who want to see more investment in subways and buses as the system continues to literally fall apart in the aftermath of hurricanes and decades of deferred maintenance.

Congestion pricing isn’t new — it’s been in the works in NYC for a long time. When it first opened way back in 1883, the Brooklyn Bridge charged horse-drawn carriages a fee to limit traffic downtown but the practice was eventually abandoned after public outcry. A 2008 plan under former Mayor Michael Bloomberg to put a congestion price on automobiles didn’t make it through the state legislature.

Cuomo has proposed a $11.52 fee to limit vehicle traffic below 60th Street, and expects the plan to provide a “reliable funding stream” for public transit in the city, especially in underserved areas, raising $15 billion in an unspecified amount of time.

In other cities around the world, congestion pricing has proven effective at reducing vehicle use. London launched its system in 2003 and traffic has dropped by over 15 percent. More than 15 years later, London’s car surcharge has increased to around $15 per car, and if anything, critics say it doesn’t go far enough.

Charging cars about the price of a fully -loaded Chipotle steak burrito to enter the densest urban environment in America isn’t an all-out, breakneck, emergency-level mobilization on climate change — but it’s a start, and it will be an important testbed for expanding the common sense policy nationwide.

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One more reason not to drive in New York (that could also save the planet)

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On Amazon’s Prime Day, the environment gets a raw deal

This Tuesday is day two of Prime Day, a late-capitalist online extravaganza for Amazon Prime members only. The once-a-year sale, which Amazon says rivals Black Friday for low prices, has become famous for its deals on increasingly bizarre items. But before you rush to purchase a hot dog toaster or a life-size yeti garden statue, consider the environmental footprint of that purchase — and Prime in general.

Transportation experts are split over whether online shopping reduces or increases emissions. In theory, online shopping can be more environmentally friendly than a traditional brick-and-mortar store: Either way, a truck has to deliver the items, and in the case of online shopping, you don’t have to drive to the store as well.

“Our research shows that delivering a typical order to an Amazon customer is more environmentally friendly than that customer driving to a store,” said Melanie Janin, sustainability representative at Amazon, in an email.

But research has shown that it’s a different story when companies incorporate “rush” shipping. Free two-day shipping — the hallmark of Amazon’s plan to squeeze out traditional retailers — burns through significantly more emissions than standard shipping or traditional in-store shopping.

And Amazon has only increased its shipping speeds, offering select products on Prime Now that can be delivered in one to two hours.“With one-hour or two-hour delivery, there is no time for companies to consolidate shipments,” says Miguel Jaller, professor of civil and environmental engineering at University of California Davis. “And that means more vehicles, more emissions, and more health impacts.”

When you wait three to five days for shipment, Jaller explains, Amazon has time to find the most efficient (and cheapest) way to deliver goods. Aviation is by far the most carbon-intensive transit option, and with more time the company can route your package by land, instead of by air. Slower shipping also allows Amazon to group your package with other, similar deliveries. But with Prime, there’s almost no incentive to choose a slower option.

“The concept of Amazon Prime pushes us towards more emissions,” Dan Sperling, another professor at UC Davis, tells Grist. “It makes the marginal cost of purchases very small, so you have motivation to buy more. And of course, that’s what Amazon wants.”

Emissions aren’t the only problem — the company has previously come under fire for truly unreasonable amounts of packaging for small items and more recently for troubling labor practices. But transport continues to be a sustainability problem for Amazon, and we don’t even know the full extent of the problem: the Seattle-based conglomerate is highly secretive about what their emissions actually are.

It’s not hopeless: Jeff Bezos, Amazon’s CEO, could take a stance on green delivery and prioritize low-emission vehicles. (Not a bad decision for a man recently named the richest in modern history). According to Jaller, Amazon could also offer higher incentives for Prime customers to opt for slower shipping. Other researchers have suggested labeling standard shipping as the green choice, or giving consumers the chance to purchase carbon offsets.

At the end of the day, however, it will take consumer pressure to make any of these changes. So please, consider whether you can wait a few days to receive your garden yeti — or better yet, whether you even need it at all.

“Amazon isn’t the villain in this,” says Sperling. “The villain is us — it’s what people are willing to pay for.”

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On Amazon’s Prime Day, the environment gets a raw deal

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How It Began: A Time-Traveler’s Guide to the Universe – Chris Impey

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How It Began: A Time-Traveler’s Guide to the Universe

Chris Impey

Genre: Astronomy

Price: $1.99

Publish Date: March 26, 2012

Publisher: W. W. Norton & Company

Seller: W. W. Norton


“Impey combines the vision of a practicing scientist with the voice of a gifted storyteller.”—Dava Sobel In this vibrant, eye-opening tour of milestones in the history of our universe, Chris Impey guides us through space and time, leading us from the familiar sights of the night sky to the dazzlingly strange aftermath of the Big Bang. What if we could look into space and see not only our place in the universe but also how we came to be here? As it happens, we can. Because it takes time for light to travel, we see more and more distant regions of the universe as they were in the successively greater past. Impey uses this concept—"look-back time"—to take us on an intergalactic tour that is simultaneously out in space and back in time. Performing a type of cosmic archaeology, Impey brilliantly describes the astronomical clues that scientists have used to solve fascinating mysteries about the origins and development of our universe. The milestones on this journey range from the nearby to the remote: we travel from the Moon, Jupiter, and the black hole at the heart of our galaxy all the way to the first star, the first ray of light, and even the strange, roiling conditions of the infant universe, an intense and volatile environment in which matter was created from pure energy. Impey gives us breathtaking visual descriptions and also explains what each landmark can reveal about the universe and its history. His lucid, wonderfully engaging scientific discussions bring us to the brink of modern cosmology and physics, illuminating such mind-bending concepts as invisible dimensions, timelessness, and multiple universes. A dynamic and unforgettable portrait of the cosmos, How It Began will reward its readers with a deeper understanding of the universe we inhabit as well as a renewed sense of wonder at its beauty and mystery.

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How It Began: A Time-Traveler’s Guide to the Universe – Chris Impey

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A Force of Nature: The Frontier Genius of Ernest Rutherford – Richard Reeves

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A Force of Nature: The Frontier Genius of Ernest Rutherford
Richard Reeves

Genre: Physics

Price: $1.99

Publish Date: December 17, 2008

Publisher: W. W. Norton & Company

Seller: W. W. Norton


“Richard Reeves, in his wonderfully lucid style, renders the genius of Ernest Rutherford, who exposed the inner workings of the atom. A great experimentalist and mentor, Rutherford gave birth to the atomic age in his labs, and Reeves captures the drama, personalities, and science.” —Walter Isaacson Born in colonial New Zealand, Ernest Rutherford grew up on the frontier—a different world from Cambridge, to which he won a scholarship at the age of twenty-four. His work revolutionized modern physics. Among his discoveries were the orbital structure of the atom and the concept of the “half-life” of radioactive materials. Rutherford and the young men working under him were the first to split the atom, unlocking tremendous forces—forces, as Rutherford himself predicted, that would bring us the atomic bomb. In Richard Reeves’s hands, Rutherford comes alive, a ruddy, genial man and a pivotal figure in scientific history.

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A Force of Nature: The Frontier Genius of Ernest Rutherford – Richard Reeves

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Most Ohio conservatives want to pay for renewables and stop propping up coal.

Here’s the idea: Build underwater barriers in front of the glaciers most vulnerable to collapse, keeping warm ocean water from sloshing in to melt them.

Princeton glaciology postdoc Michael Wolovick presented this concept at the American Geophysical Union conference in December, as the Atlantic reports.

The Antarctic glaciers Wolovick studies are subject to disastrous feedback loops: The more they melt, the more they are exposed to melt-inducing seawater. Recent studies have suggested these massive stores of ice could collapse much faster than previously thought, potentially raising sea levels by 5 to 15 feet by the end of the century (that’s seriously bad news for coastal cities).

Wolovick has been researching the feasibility of slowing that collapse with ‘sills’ constructed out of sand and rock along the fronts of these vulnerable glaciers. Unlike a seawall, they would be entirely underwater, but would keep warm ocean water from reaching a glacier’s vulnerable base.

That could stall glacial retreat dramatically, and maybe even reverse it. In Wolovick’s virtual experiments, even the least successful version of the sills slowed a glacier’s collapse by 400 or 500 years.

It’s all still a huge if, Wolovick admits, that requires more research. But if it works, it could buy some crucial time against sea-level rise.

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Most Ohio conservatives want to pay for renewables and stop propping up coal.

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Did Donald Trump Really Hand Angela Merkel a "Bill" For NATO Services?

Mother Jones

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This story from the Sunday Times leaves me in a quandary:

Donald Trump handed the German chancellor Angela Merkel a bill — thought to be for more than £300bn — for money her country “owed” NATO for defending it when they met last weekend, German government sources have revealed.

The bill — handed over during private talks in Washington — was described as “outrageous” by one German minister. “The concept behind putting out such demands is to intimidate the other side, but the chancellor took it calmly and will not respond to such provocations,” the minister said.

What to think? On the one hand, reporting on items like this from the British press is notoriously unreliable. On the other hand, it’s moronic beyond belief, which makes it perfectly plausible that Trump might have done this. Hmmm.

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Did Donald Trump Really Hand Angela Merkel a "Bill" For NATO Services?

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4 Different Methods for Preparing Your Morning Coffee

Turns out, theres more to making a cup of coffee than simply pressing brew on your coffee machine. In fact, outside of the U.S., many people are left shaking their heads at the concept of brewed coffee and its lack of thick, rich texture and flavor. And the differences of opinion over coffee prep arent solely rooted in snobbery did you know there are actual health differences between different preparation methods?

Whether youre concerned about your cholesterol levels, in searchof a more flavorful cup of joe, or just hoping to increase your coffee-making finesse, heres what you need to know about the pros and cons of the top four coffee preparation methods.

Brewed Coffee

Lets start off with brewed coffee, the most popular preparation method in the United States. This method involves putting a few scoops of ground coffee beans into an electric coffee maker, usually over a filter. Water is then heated and pumped through the machine, dripping down over the ground beans. As the water drips through the beans and the filter, it picks up the flavorsof the coffee beans and results in a nice, flavorful cup of coffee.

Now, lets consider the benefits and drawbacks. One of the biggest benefits of brewed coffee is its convenience factor. You simply turn the machine on (or use a timer to set it to brew at a particular time) and, as long as youve put your water, filter and coffee grounds into the machine, youll get a cup of coffee about five minutes later.

The main drawback, of course, is that its pretty easy to make your coffee too weak or too strong. Many coffee snobs complain that brewed coffee is, well, watery which makes sense, when you think about it.

French Press

By contrast, French press coffee is made by mixing coffee grounds directly with water. Youll need a French press machine to do this, of course. After steeping for about four minutes (youll adjust this based on how strong youd like your coffee to be), you press the machines filter through the coffee to strain out the grounds.

The biggest downside of a French press is that has a minor difference for your health. Some students suggest that the absence of a filter causes coffee oils to remain in the coffee, which can impact your cholesterol levels.

Coffee oils are most potent in coffees where the grounds have the longest contact with the water during brewing, states Healthline. A French press, which brews coffee by continually passing water through the grounds, has been shown to have greater concentrations of cafestol. Brewing in an American-style coffee pot with a filter, on the other hand, has relatively low levels, as the beverage is only passed through the grounds once. Most of the cafestol is left behind in the filter no matter what the roast.

Pour-Over/Chemex

Pour-over coffee, which is often associated with the popular Chemex machine, is kind of the best of both worlds. It utilizes a filter (which can help keep out cholesterol-raising coffee oils) but it offers the flavor and character of a hand-brewed coffee.

You can make your own pour-over system simply by tying some cheesecloth around a medium-sized bowl, placing ground coffee beans on top, and then slowly pouring hot water over the grounds into the bowl below. Of course, you can also invest in a machine such as the Chemex or a similar type of product.

The main drawback to pour-over coffee is that its arguably the most labor-intensive. You have to pour hot water slowly over the coffee beans, which means its a very hands-on process.

Keurig

Finally, the newest option for coffee preparation: the Keurig machine. There are plenty of other brands that manufacture machines similar to the Keurig (Nescafe is one of them), but Keurig was the first, and remains the most popular, machine of its kind.

The Keurig is incredibly easy to use. All you have to do is place a pre-made K-cup (a plastic cup filled with coffee grounds) in your machine, add water, and press brew. Youll soon have a single cup of coffee ready to enjoy. Because the amount of groundsin each cup is standard, theres little room for error, so youre unlikely to end up with watery coffee.

Of course, those of us who care about protecting the planet will already know that single-serve coffee pods come with a MAJOR drawback: Theyre horrible for the environment. If you enjoy making single-serve coffee, the best way to make your coffee more environmentally friendly is to spring for a reusable K-cup filter that can easily be put in your machine. You just add regular coffee grounds to the reusable cup, push brew, and clean the filter when youre done.

Disclaimer: The views expressed above are solely those of the author and may not reflect those of Care2, Inc., its employees or advertisers.

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4 Different Methods for Preparing Your Morning Coffee

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Why I Am Vegan (And You Should Be Too)

Since the vegan movement started in the 1940s, it has been mainly about ending the exploitation of animals. While veganism has grown in numbers throughout the decades, lets face it: most people simply dont care about animals enough to stop using them as food. But animal welfare is only one reason to go vegan. Other than the animals, here are some of the many reasons why I am vegan and you should be too.

Veganism Is Feminism

Veganism is based on the principle of speciesism, or the belief that no species (in this case, humans) is inherently superior to another species.

This concept is closely related to sexism, as well as racism, classism, ableism, heterosexualism, and the other isms that plague society. If you allow the belief that humans are superior to animals and thus it is okay to exploit them, then you make room for the belief that men are superior to women and so forth. To quote Alice Walker, author of The Color Purple:

The animals of the world exist for their own reasons. They were not made for humans any more than black people were made for whites or women for men.

Veganism Is Good for the Planet

Unless youve been solely tuned to Fox News, you are probably aware by now that global warming is a serious problem. The 2014 UN report on climate change said that we can expect famine, drought, and wars over resources by 2050 if climate change isnt halted.

While the media focuses on things like taking shorter shower and using public transportation as a way to curb the eminent doom that is global warming, they often fail to mention what really needs to be done, which is to change the way we eat.

It will be hard to meet the 2-degree goal no matter what; it will be impossible if livestock pollution isn’t part of the mix, Doug Boucher, PhD ecologist and evolutionary biologist and director of climate research and analysis at the Union of Concerned Scientists told CNN,

How bad is meat and dairy for the planet? According to FAO, 18 percent of global emissions come from livestock. Lindsay Wilson fromShrink that Footprintlooked at the eco footprints of various diets in America, and he found that the average American has a footprint of 2.5 tCO2e per year (tons of carbon dioxide equivalent) and a meat lover has a footprint of 3.3 tCO2e. By contrast, a vegan footprint is just 1.5 tCO2e!

Or, to put this in terms of water usage,1lb of beef requires 1,800gallons of water. Do the math and youll see that the water used to make 10 hamburgers is well over a years worth of showers.

Yes, you could quit showering for an ENTIRE YEAR and still not save as much water if youd just stop eating meat.

Veganism Is Good for Your Health

Yes, there are some nutritional issues about the vegan diet which need to be considered (but protein isnt one of them!). And, yes, it is possible to eat nothing but junk food and still be vegan. However, numerous studies have shown that the vegan diet is linked to numerous health benefits, including:

Lower Body Weight: People who eat meat are 9 times more likely to be obese than vegans.
Reduced Risk of Heart Disease: Vegans are 32 pecent less likely to get heart disease.
Diabetes: Vegans have half the risk of developing type II diabetes as meat eaters.

So, even if you dont care about animal welfare, go vegan for your fellow man (and woman) kind, the planet, and for yourself!

Image credit: Thinkstock

Disclaimer: The views expressed above are solely those of the author and may not reflect those of Care2, Inc., its employees or advertisers.

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Why I Am Vegan (And You Should Be Too)

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Earth Day Pledge: Zero Waste For A Day

Each year Earth Day reminds us that we all, collectively, must take care of this little blue and green home. After all, its the only one we have.  Now its all too easy to slip back into old habits come April 23rd. So, why not try something a little different for Earth Day this year?  This year, why not do something a little unorthodox — take the Earth911 Earth Day Zero Waste Challenge Pledge?

Earth Day Zero Waste Challenge

So what exactly is the challenge?  The challenge is quite simple — just two steps.

1) COMMIT

The first step is committing to the challenge by signing the Earth Day Pledge.  Don’t worry, there won’t be armed men knocking on your door to check that you’ve complied at the end of the day.  This is between you and the person you see in the mirror each morning.  Signing the pledge form is merely a reminder to yourself that you’re committing to producing zero waste for one day – Earth Day.  What better way to honor Earth than not trashing it – literally.

2) ACTION

Step two is taking action.  If its sounds too daunting – creating zero waste for an entire day – we’ve got some great resources for you below. You just may find that going zero waste for a day isn’t that tall an order.  One day may turn into a week.  A week could turn into a month.  You get the picture hopefully.  It’s all about small steps, small steps that when combined together translate into real change.  Make this year’s Earth Day a game changer.  As Bea Johnson detailed to Earth911,

“Zero Waste really starts outside the home, with the decisions that we make when we shop. If you do not buy packaging (by buying secondhand and in bulk for example), you don’t have to deal with its waste later.”

Finally, if you find yourself stumbling, don’t beat yourself up over it. Meaningful change comes with its share of setbacks and triumphs. If you live with others communicate with them about your pledge and be prepared to experience possible resistance.

Zero waste resources

There’s More to Zero Waste Than Being Green 
Zero Waste For One Week. How Hard Is It Really?
Zero Waste Home Cleaning And Laundry Tips
What Does Zero Waste Really Mean?
7 Steps Towards A Zero Waste Lifestyle
Moving Towards Zero Waste 
Is Zero Waste Grocery The Answer To Growing Landfills?
A Chat With Zero Waste Influencer Lauren Singer 
A Sit Down With Zero Waste Home’s Bea Johnson

Everything is bigger in Texas

Earth Day Texas creates a fun and engaging atmosphere for thought and experiential learning while encouraging attendees to be the change they wish to see in the world. Image Credit: Earth Day Texas

They say everything is bigger in Texas and here is another example.  Now the largest event of its type in the world, Earth Day Texas is held annually in April to celebrate progress, hope, and innovation bringing together environmental organizations, businesses, academic institutions, government agencies, speakers, interactive programming, and subject matter experts. Attendees will also enjoy numerous outdoor experiences, including live music, sustainable beer and food pavilions, electric bike test tracks, and family activities.  EDT creates a fun and engaging atmosphere for thought and experiential learning while encouraging attendees to be the change they wish to see in the world.

Earth911 is just one of over 700 vendors scheduled at this year’s EDT.  For full details about how you can participate in this FREE event, check out the Earth Day Texas website.  Stop by and visit us; we’ll be in the Grand Place building.

What are your Earth Day plans?  Share your plans in the comments section below.

Feature image credit: petrmalinak / Shutterstock

About
Latest Posts

Chase Ezell

As Managing Editor for Earth911, Chase oversees editorial direction and content publishing for the site. Prior to his current role and spanning more than a decade, Chase served in various Public Relations, Communications and Sustainability roles.

Latest posts by Chase Ezell (see all)

Earth Day Pledge: Zero Waste For A Day – April 19, 2016
Recycling Awareness Front, Center At Landmark Events – April 15, 2016
Zero Food Waste On Display At New Grocery Concept – April 12, 2016

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Earth Day Pledge: Zero Waste For A Day

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